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Publisher: ORBIS (October 12, 2017)
Publication Date: October 12, 2017
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No doubt Pope Francis from Argentina hears the cry of the poor. He has no serious rival on the world stage when it comes to criticizing economic inequality. Sooner or later, Pope Francis (born in 1936, as Jorge Mario Bergoglio) will die. When he dies, the Koch brothers and other economic libertarians will most likely celebrate his death and say, “Good riddance!†You see, Pope Francis is the most prominent critic on the planet of economic globalization and economic inequality. Many American liberals and progressives are familiar with his criticisms of economic globalization and economic inequality. No doubt he has heard the cry of the poor. No doubt economic inequality is a big problem. No doubt he has put his talent for publicly scolding people to good use in denouncing economic inequality.Unfortunately, however, Pope Francis does not appear to have heard the cry of the poor victims of priest-sex-abuse, even though he may have met with some of them. Or at least he has not yet effectively addressed the problem of priest sex abuse by effectively revising canon law to deal with it more effectively – as he still should.Now, the theology of the people developed in Argentina is a distinctive subset of the liberation theology that was developed in Latin America after Vatican II, as the lay theologian Rafael Luciani explains in his new book Pope Francis and the Theology of the People, translated by Philip Berryman (Orbis Books, 2017). His book includes end-notes that are both bibliographic notes (Spanish-language sources are over-represented) and discussion notes (pages 157-191) and an index (pages 193-199). I found some of his discussion notes very informative.Rafael Luciani is from Caracas, Venezuela. However, at the present time, he teaches at Boston College, the Jesuit university in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. In my estimate, Rafael Luciani’s book deserves to be widely read by Americans of various religious traditions and widely discussed – and criticized. For example, the author deserves to be criticized for not even mentioning the priest-sex-abuse scandal and cover-up by the bishops.In any event, as Pope Francis sees the global situation, economic globalization and economic inequality contribute to an emerging new form of colonialism – and what I would style as its de-humanizing and de-personalizing spirit. But the old forms of colonialism were no good, because of their de-humanizing and de-personalizing spirit, and they had to be rejected and replaced. Similarly, the emerging new form of colonialism is no good either, and so it also needs to be rejected and replaced. But how, and with what kind of approaches? Clearly Pope Francis is on the side of the angels in his clear-sighted view of our contemporary global situation. But will the approaches he advocates work effectively? Your guess is as good as mine. But my guess is that they won’t work effectively – that is, they will most not likely not deliver the changes that he seems to expect that they will deliver.However, in the spirit of giving credit where credit is due, I will give Pope Francis credit for formulating a coherent set of approaches and for having the courage of his convictions to advocate them to any and all people who might listen to him – or at least to all people who might be subjected to listening to him whether they want to or not. No doubt there is a mind at work in Pope Francis – which is more than I can say about President Donald J. Trump. (I admit that that is setting the bar rather low. Trump appears to be oriented to volatile reactivity that entertains his most ardent supporters.)Now, American economic libertarians such as the Koch brothers tend to regard economic libertarianism as a pseudo-religion that inspires their blind faith in its pseudo-theological marketplace tenets. But Pope Francis is committed to a real religious belief system (Roman Catholicism) that happen to have a remarkably well-developed theology, including the theology of the people that was developed in Argentina after the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) in the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Francis was born and raised in Argentina and became a Jesuit priest and then a bishop and then an archbishop and then a cardinal there, before the cardinal-electors elected him to serve as the pope.Disclosure: For many years now, I have not been a practicing Catholic. I am a theistic humanist, as distinct from an atheistic humanist (also known as a secular humanist). Nevertheless, my extensive formal education was in Roman Catholic educational institutions. During the years of my undergraduate studies (1962-1966), the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) in the Roman Catholic Church took place. When I was later in life in the Jesuit order in the Roman Catholic Church (1979-1987), I did my graduate studies in theology at the University of Toronto.For the record, I reject Roman Catholic Church’s opposition to abortion in the first trimester. Regarding legalized abortion in the first trimester, I accept the position that James H. Fetzer develops in his book Render Unto Darwin: Philosophical Aspects of the Christian Right’s Crusade Against Science (Open Court, 2007, pages 95-120).But both conservative American Catholics and liberal American Catholics with respect to intra-church politics tend to accept the church’s opposition to legalized abortion in the first trimester. Because of the anti-abortion zealotry of American Catholics, many American liberals and progressives tend to see American Catholics as conservatives. Indeed, on the issue of legalized abortion in the first trimester, many American Catholics tend to be conservatives. However, on certain other civic and social issues, American Catholics tend to fall all over the place on the political spectrum of opinions.Now, conservative American Catholics tended not to like liberation theology. Unfortunately for the liberation theologians in Latin America, Pope John-Paul had a strong reaction to their use of any terminology that he considered to be Marxist terminology -- or in the spirit of Marxist terminology. Marxist thought is strongly utopian. According to Rafael Luciani, utopia represents “an expectation of a future place of well-being†(page 74). But Roman Catholic thought is not utopian, even though the canonized Roman Catholic saint and Renaissance humanist Thomas More famously wrote a book titled Utopia.Now, with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XIII) as his enforcer, Pope John-Paul II made life miserable for liberation theologians and would-be practitioner of liberation theology in Latin America. But Pope John-Paul II elevated Archbishop Bergoglio in Argentina to the rank of cardinal. Evidently, in the judgment of the pope, Archbishop Bergoglio was not tainted by the liberation theology in certain other countries in Latin America. However, as Rafael Luciani explains, Archbishop Bergoglio was steeped in the theology of the people that had emerged in Argentina – free of Marxist terminology.Now, Vatican II was a watershed. After the council’s documents were officially promulgated by Pope Pius VI, and translated into various languages, well-educated Roman Catholics throughout the world read them and commented on them, and certain Roman Catholic theologians in various parts of the world undertook the task of amplify the challenges to the church faithful expressed in those official documents.American Catholics and non-Catholics may remember the 1960s for the election of then-Senator John F. Kennedy in 1960 to be the first Roman Catholic Irish-American president of the United States, for his tragic assassination in 1963, for the black civil rights movement, for the Vietnam War, for the assassinations in 1968 of the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Senator Robert F. Kennedy, for President Lyndon B. Johnson’s decision in 1968 not to seek re-election, for the police riot in 1968 in Chicago at the time of the Convention of the Democratic Party there, for the election in 1968 of former Vice President Richard M. Nixon to be the president of the United States, and for the emergence of the so-called “second wave†feminist movement.For a discussion of Dr. King’s theological thought, see Rufus Burrow’s book God and Human Dignity: The Personalism, Theology, and Ethics of Martin Luther King, Jr. (University of Notre Dame, 2006). Dr. King’s theological thought is similar in spirit to the theology of the people that emerged in Argentina in response to Vatican II.Now, my favorite scholar is the American Jesuit Renaissance specialist Walter J. Ong (1912-2003; Ph.D. in English, Harvard University, 1955) characterized his work in cultural history as phenomenological and personalist in cast. As Rafael Luciani explains the theology of the people that emerged in Argentina after Vatican II, it is personalist in cast.In the midst of all of that social and cultural ferment in the United States, American Catholics were also subjected to the reforms of Vatican II, including the reforms of the Mass. The official language of the Mass was switched from Latin to English. And the priest/celebrant at Mass no longer turned his back to the congregation as much, but turned to face the congregation much of the time. In addition, the symbolic kiss of peace (a handshake) was introduced for the congregation to greet one another. Moreover, Catholics no longer were expected to abstain from eating meat on Fridays. In these and certain other small ways, ordinary American Catholics were subjected to having long-established routines that had become habits for them disturbed by Vatican II. Not surprisingly, certain conservative American Catholics such as James Hitchcock and Michael Novak reacted strongly against these and other felt threats posed by Vatican II. Novak’s most notable book is The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism (American Enterprise Institute/ Simon & Schuster, 1982).In part, the various felt threats that conservative American Catholics reacted to contributed to the emergence of the hermeneutic of continuity versus the hermeneutic of rupture in Roman Catholic circles worldwide. (Hermeneutic means interpretation – referring how to view and interpret the spirit of the documents of Vatican II.) Pope John-Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI favored the hermeneutic of continuity.In general, the advocates of the hermeneutic of rupture were/are celebratory and welcomed what they interpreted as Vatican II’s ruptures with the church’s recent past practices. Oftentimes, the advocates of the hermeneutic of rupture tend to see the work of Vatican II as incomplete, and so they favor convening Vatican III to advance their preferred agenda for further changes (ruptures) in the church.But whether we interpret the changes instituted by Vatican II as representing continuity with the recent past or ruptures, just how many changes in pastoral practices can practicing Catholics be expected to adapt to? At times, Father Hans Kung, James Carroll, and Garry Wills appear to me to have exalted expectations of just how much change in pastoral practices practicing Catholics can be expected to adapt to. Please don’t misunderstand me here. I am not necessarily criticizing any of the critiques advanced by Kung and/or Carroll and/or Wills, nor am I necessarily arguing against any of the further changes that they advance.Rafael Luciani frequently introduces certain other hermeneutics – theological hermeneutics – throughout his book. Concerning hermeneutics, see Ong’s article “Hermeneutic Forever: Voice, Text, Digitization, and the ‘I’†in the journal Oral Tradition, volume 10, number 1 (March 1995): pages 3-36; reprinted in volume four of Ong’s Faith and Contexts (Scholars Press, 1999, pages 183-204). Also see Ong’s posthumously published unfinished book Language as Hermeneutic: A Primer on the Word and Digitization, edited by Thomas D. Zlatic and Sara van den Berg (Cornell University Press, 2017).As I say, Archbishop Bergoglio in Argentina was elevated to cardinal by Pope john-Paul II, and then in 2013, Cardinal Bergoglio was elected pope by his fellow cardinal-electors. Now, Pope Francis is not likely to pursue the kind of change (ruptures) favored by the advocates of the hermeneutic of rupture in the interpretation of Vatican II documents. At least in this general sense, he can accurately be styled as a conservative with respect to church doctrines and practices, but he might try to advance certain small changes.Thus far, I have now sketched the intra-church picture for you to a certain degree to establish the backdrop for Rafael Luciani’s discussion of the theology of the people that Pope Francis brings to his papacy. Now, we should note here that the British write Austen Ivereigh has published a well-informed book about Pope Francis titled The Great Reformer: Francis and the Making of a Radical Pope (Henry Holt, 2014). But if Pope Francis is not likely to make the changes in the church advocated by certain liberal American Catholics, how in the world could he be the great reformer of the church or a radical pope? For all practical purposes, Rafael Luciani sets out to address what kinds of church reforms that Pope Francis seeks and what kinds of reforms he advocates for the church faithful and other people of goodwill throughout the world. In effect, Rafael Luciani shows just how justified Austen Ivereigh’s characterization of him as a radical pope is.Now, Pope Francis’ fondness for center versus periphery imagery shows how deeply his thinking has been influenced by the spirit of the Jesuits. Historically, the missionary spirit of the Jesuits led certain Jesuits to explore the peripheries (as regarded from their Europe-centered standpoint). Of course, Franciscan missionaries and other missionaries did similar exploring of peripheries. Franciscan missionaries were especially prominent in what is now known as the state of California. Jesuit missionaries were prominent in what is now known as Latin America. But Jesuit missionaries also made certain inroads in North America. The group of martyrs known collectively as the North American martyrs includes both Jesuit missionaries and some of their native converts. Jesuit missionaries were also active in India and China.For an informative Freudian psychoanalytic study of St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), the founder of the Jesuits, see the American psychiatrist W. W. Meissner’s book Ignatius of Loyola: The Psychology of a Saint (Yale University Press, 1992).For a perceptive psychoanalytic study of St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), the founder of the Franciscans, see the French Franciscan Eloi Leclerc’s book The Canticle of Creatures: Symbols of Union: An Analysis of St. Francis of Assisi, translated by Matthew J. O’Connell (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1977; orig. French ed., 1970).For a succinct account of the cultural significance of St. Francis of Assisi, see the British writer G. K. Chesterton’s biography of him (1924).Now, Rafael Luciani says, “One of the aspects in the teaching of [Pope] Francis that has encountered the greatest resistance has been his proposal that the option for the poor be a structural element in the life and mission of the entire Church, and hence capable of bringing about ‘real changes’ in society. Such a stance necessarily affects relations between the center and the peripheries, between Rome and local churches, between the Church and society at large. Under this scheme, changes of whatever nature cannot be driven from the center, but rather must come from the peripheries, whether existential and social or political and religious†(pages 55-56).Because Pope Francis works with such a well-developed sense of the peripheries, I want to call attention to Ong’s essay “The Faith, the Intellectual, and the Perimeters†in his first book Frontiers in American Catholicism: Essays on Ideology and Culture (Macmillan, 1957, pages 104-125). Toward the end of that essay, Ong urges his fellow American Catholics to develop a “mystique†(his word) of religious practices suited to their contemporary American culture – “a real Christian mystique of technology and science†(page 121; also see pages 123 and 124). Now, Rafael Luciani uses the expression “mystique†in a similar way (pages 24 and 88), and he credits the Jesuit Jorge Seibold with introducing it into the parlance of Latin American liberation theology in a 2006 document (page 178, note 70).Ong’s former teacher at Saint Louis University, the Jesuit university in St. Louis, Missouri, the Canadian Renaissance specialist and Catholic convert Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) published his first book The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man (Vanguard Press, 1951). Ong published his review-article “The Mechanical Bride: Christen the Folklore of Industrial Man†in the now-defunct journal Social Order (Saint Louis University), volume 2, number 2 (February 1952): pages 79-85. I am certain beyond a shadow of a doubt that Father Ong was completely serious about the imperative “Christen†in the title of his review-article.Basically, Rafael Luciani argues that something like Ong’s imperative to “Christen†popular culture was/is one of the key hallmarks of the liberation theology that emerged after Vatican II in Latin America. Try to follow what Rafael Luciani says in the following passage:“Popular pastoral ministry has helped overcome ecclesial culture that represents an image of God over and against the world [instead of presenting an image of God as actively participating somehow in the world]. The people’s culture [including in North America, as interpreted by Ong, McLuhan’s folklore of industrial culture] does not reflect the scheme of formal religion; it is based on the relationship with a God who is manifested in and through the everyday life of each person, whether in the realm of the outward and secular [as McLuhan’s manifestations are] or of the silent and symbolic-mythical. Among the people there is a true encounter between faith and culture; it is an everyday personalized faith, rather than one that is private and turned inward†(page 72).I hasten to add here that if we see God as endowing each human person with a distinctively human soul at the moment of viability of the developed fetus, not at the moment of conception, then we should see God’s action in doing that as God’s ongoing participation in God’s evolutionary creation in this world. From this hint, we should have no difficulty in granting “the relationship with a God who is manifested in and through the everyday life of each person.â€Rafael Luciani says that in Latin American liberation theology, the term “liberation†is used a synonym of “salvation†in the Christian tradition of thought, and he claims that so-called liberation/salvation is presented in two contexts: “(1) promotion of the human being, which leads to economic growth and sociopolitical participation; and (2) the development of peoples themselves to free themselves from any form of colonialism†(page 74). From any form of colonialism? In this context, what exactly does colonialism mean? A careful definition of the term “colonialism†is needed, and so is an explanation of what “any form of colonialism†means.But Rafael Luciani excels at crafting ingenious expressions as he constructs his arguments. Does he get high on ingenious verbal constructs? Over and over, he invokes the spirit of the council, the change of era announced in one key council document, and Pope Francis’ advocacy of “closeness†with the poor. Over and over, Rafael Luciani works with glib verbal contrasts, in which the terms that he prefers are defined and explained adequately enough, but the terms he shuns are not adequately defined and explained – they are just handy terms for what should be shunned, as though they were self-evidently evil somehow, or at least not desirable.But Ong likes to say that we need both closeness (proximity) and distance to understand something. But distance is not favored by Rafael Luciani – and perhaps also not by Pope Francis. For the record, I happen to agree with Ong’s formula calling for both closeness and distance to inform cognitive understanding. But I recognize that Pope Francis’ call for closeness with the poor involves an affective dimension and personal caring, not just a cognitive awareness to inform cognitive understanding.Now, as far as I know, Ong and McLuhan never invoke the council’s use of the expression about a change of era. But both of them were heralds calling attention to the critical mass of communications media that accentuate sound and how they were working to bring about changes in the contemporary Western psyche. Ong famously coined the term “secondary oral culture†to refer to this change of era. He distinguishes contemporary “secondary oral culture†from “primary oral culture†(i.e., pre-literate and pre-Christian culture). No doubt residual forms of primary orality persisted for centuries even after phonetic alphabetic literacy made inroads in certain ancient cultures. No doubt literacy and literate modes of thought will persist in our contemporary Western “secondary oral culture.†No doubt the communications media that accentuate sound (i.e., secondary orality) have a deep impact and influence on the human psyche’s affective dimension – and the affective dimension is related to the affective dimension of closeness that Pope Francis calls for.A digression is in order here to discuss cognitive and affective conversion processes. The Canadian Jesuit philosopher and theologian Bernard Lonergan (1904-1984) discusses three cognitive conversion processes in his philosophical masterpiece Insight: A Study of Human Understanding, 5th ed. (University of Toronto Press, 1992; orig. ed., 1957): (1) intellectual conversion, (2) moral conversion, and (3) religious conversion. Incidentally, both Ong and McLuhan were familiar with Lonergan’s book. Later in his life, Lonergan also wrote about affective conversion. But I want to stress here that both the cognitive and the affective conversions that he discusses involve processes that individual persons must work through. In plain English, neither the cognitive conversions nor the affective conversion unfold overnight, as it were. They take time to work through. Moreover, the affective conversion process may prompt further developments in the moral and religious and even the intellectual conversion processes that may have preceded the affective conversion process.Now, for all practical purposes, the affective recovery work that the American psychotherapist Pete Walker delineates in his book Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving (Azure Coyote Book, 2013) involves what Lonergan refers to as affective conversion.In terms of affective conversion, I am reasonably sure that Pope Francis himself has advanced further than I have. Good for him. Basically, I have no serious objection to having him urge others, including me, to cultivate a deeper degree of affective conversion. But I would urge him not to forget his own personal journey in life and the extensive one-to-one spiritual direction he received in his years as a Jesuit. I am sure that I myself benefitted from the one-to-one spiritual direction I myself received in my years in the Jesuits. Consequently, I am sure that he also benefitted from that kind of personal attention. However, I and many others may have not advanced as far as he has in his psycho-spiritual development.Nevertheless, I am not sure that all of Rafael Luciani’s glib contrasts are well enough informed to help most us deepen our affective conversion -- but they may help us form smug attitudes about ourselves and others we may choose to see as under-developed compared to our imagined development. In other words, Rafael Luciani’s glib contrasts could contribute to a kind of “political correctness†based on Latin American and Argentianian liberation theology.To round out this digression, I want to discuss further the affect impact and influence of our contemporary secondary oral culture deep in the human psyche of contemporary people, including Roman Catholics around the world today, not just in Western culture today. The affective resonances that secondary orality stirs up deep in the psyche should not be seriously under-estimated by religious traditions such as the Roman Catholic religious tradition. In Jesuit parlance, the affective resonances activated by secondary orality are going to call for discernments of spirits. But I want to mention Jordan B. Peterson’s use of the term chaos in his two books: (1) Maps of Meaning: The Architecture of Belief (Routledge, 1999) and (2) 12 Rules for Life: An Antidote for Chaos (Random House Canada, 2018). In both books, Peterson works with the contrast of order versus chaos. In general, the various religious traditions in the world today, including the Roman Catholic religious tradition, supply their adherents with belief systems, each of which gives their respective adherents a sense of order in their lives to help them fight off chaos. Consequently, an era of change in a religious tradition, such as the era of change inaugurated by Vatican II, threatens to challenge the adherents’ sense of order – and the threat can register on the adherents as a threat of chaos. Now, the deep impact and influence of secondary orality can also register on certain people as a felt threat, threatening their sense of order and seeming to like a threat of chaos. End of digression.Now, McLuhan calls attention to the critical mass of communications media that accentuate sound most notably in his book The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (University of Toronto Press, 1962).But we should note here that Rafael Luciani is not entirely unfamiliar with McLuhan: “In 1964, Marshall McLuhan coined the term “global village†(page 106). However, this one sentence appears to sum up the extent of his familiarity with McLuhan.Ong calls attention to the critical mass of communications media that accentuate sound most notably in his book The Presence of the Word: Some Prolegomena for Cultural and Religious History (Yale University Press, 1967), the expanded version of Ong’s 1964 Terry Lectures at Yale University.Because McLuhan’s 1962 book and Ong’s 1967 book were published by prestigious university presses, we might conclude that their books were oriented to influencing people in the prestige culture in the English-speaking world – and through later translations of their books into other European languages, people in the prestige culture in the Western world. Now, in the Roman Catholic Church, theologians, including Rafael Luciani and other Latin American and Argentinian liberation theologians, represent the church’s prestige culture, along with the church’s magisterium under the official control of the bishops. To be part of the church’s elite group, theologians usually are expected to hold doctorates in theology, not just a graduate degree in theology. Ong held a graduate degree in theology, but McLuhan did not. Therefore, theologians felt that they should ignore Ong and McLuhan.Now, oftentimes, Rafael Luciani stipulates a pungent expression as something undesirable, so that he can concentrate on explaining something supposedly desirable that should be preferred. For example, he repeatedly refers to the privatization of religion as undesirable (see, for example, pages 87, 89, 91, and 92). But he does not define and explain what he means by the privatization of religion. By contrast, he usually defines and explains whatever he is setting up as supposedly desirable.But I mention the example of privatization of religion because I suspect that I might want to debate against Rafael Luciani in favor of the privatization of religion, but without a clearer statement from him, I am not sure what exactly he does not like about what he characterizes as the privatization of religion. Please don’t misunderstand me here. I am not saying that I necessarily favor the privatization of religion. But I am saying that I do not want to jump of a bandwagon to denounce it, whatever it is. Whatever it is, I want to know more about it before I decide for myself whether or not it is desirable.But let’s pause and dwell on salvation as a synonym for liberation in liberation theology. From Pope Francis’ personal practice of the Argentine theology of the people, can we conclude that he has experienced salvation/liberation? Now, I am perfectly willing to allow that from what I have seen of the example he has set as the pope that he far exceeds me in his personal psycho-spiritual development and practice. In addition, I admire how he leads by example.However, at times, I get the impression that Pope Francis thoroughly enjoys being a scold. For example, he scolded Vatican bureaucrats. Rafael Luciani summarizes fourteen critiques that Pope Francis made in his 2014 message to the Vatican officials (pages 146-148). The pope’s verbal facility in articulating all of these critiques of clericalism and ecclesial culture is impressive. But did his critiques change anybody? I seriously doubt it. But it is not hard for Pope Francis to be a scold – scolding others publicly seems to come to him effortlessly. But scolding subordinates publicly like that is not likely to lead them to change significantly. I know, I know, he thinks he is being “prophetic.â€In conclusion, Rafael Luciani does an excellent job of contextualizing Pope Francis’ thought in the specific context of the theology of the people that emerged in his native Argentina in response to Vatican II -- and in the broader context of liberation theology that also emerged elsewhere in Latin America in response to Vatican II. But how many American Catholics and/or non-Catholic Americans are interested in contextualizing Pope Francis’ thought?
This is a compelling explanation of the Pope's theology: how ordinary people must see everyone as created by God and hence deserve to be honored as His creation. Like most managers and CEO's, the Pope has to try to bring a better understanding of the poor and marginalized as equal as the hierarchies in God's eyes.
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